Macroeconomics and Monetary Economics
Abstract
This study empirically examined the long- and short-run dynamics of agricultural
productivity in 37 selected countries in sub-Saharan Africa between 1990 and 2016 employing the
recent Panel Auto Regressive Distributed Lag model. The model estimate revealed a cointegrating but
no short-run significant relationship between agricultural output and the independent variables. The
Cobb-Douglass production function thus supports long-run but not short-run estimation of agricultural
production in this region during the reviewed period. The study found that labour and the real exchange
rate have a positive and significant long-run influence on agricultural productivity while capital, degree
of openness and per-capita income exhibit a negative but significant relationship with such productivity.
The negative and significant Error Correction Term value showed that all the variables move towards
long-run stability at a slow annual speed of adjustment of 29.2%; the influence of the independent
variables thus enhances agricultural productivity in the long run. Based on these findings, the
formulation and implementation of effective macroeconomic policies are recommended to stabilize the
exchange rate, encourage exports, optimally utilize capital, and enhance infrastructure provision with a
view to boosting agricultural productivity to stimulate economic growth in sub-Saharan Africa.
References
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1980-2003. In Proceedings of International Conference on Applied Economics, ICOAE, pp. 3-10.
Ajao, A.O. (2011). Empirical analysis of agricultural productivity growth in Sub-Saharan Africa: 1961–
2003. Libyan Agricultural Resource Center Journal International, 2(5), pp. 224-231.
Akpan, S.B.; Udoh, E.J. & Patrick, I.V. (2015). Assessment of economic policy variables that modeled
agricultural intensification in Nigeria. Russian Journal of Agricultural and Socio-Economic Sciences,
41(5).
Ahmad, N. & Du, L. (2017). Effects of energy production and CO2 emissions on economic growth in
Iran: ARDL approach. Energy Volume, 123, 15 March 2017, pp. 521-537.
Akande, O.R.; Obekpa, H.O. & Fani D.R. (2017). Improving Agricultural Productivity Growth in Sub-
Saharan Africa. In: Heshmati A. (eds) Studies on Economic Development and Growth in Selected
African Countries. Frontiers in African Business Research. Springer, Singapore.
Alene, A.D. (2010). Productivity growth and the effects of R&D in African agriculture. Agricultural
Economics, 41(3-4), pp. 223-238.
Almasifard, M. & Khorasani, S.T. (2017). Relationship between Domestic Production in Agricultural
and Industrial Sectors and Purchasing Power by Controlling for International Trade Variables (Iran).
International Journal of Economics and Financial Issues, 7(4), pp. 244-253.
Alvarez-Cuadrado, F.; Van Long, N. & Poschke, M. (2017). Capital–labor substitution, structural
change, and growth. Theoretical Economics, 12(3), pp. 1229-1266.
Asumadu-Sarkodie, S. & Owusu, P.A. (2016). The relationship between carbon dioxide and agriculture
in Ghana: A comparison of VECM and ARDL model. Environmental Science and Pollution Research,
23(11), pp. 10968-10982.
Awan, A.G. & Yaseen, G. (2017). Global Climate Change and its Impact on Agriculture Sector in
Pakistan. American Journal of Trade and Policy, 4(1), pp. 41-48.
Bahmani-Oskooee, M. & Brooks, T.J. (2003). A new criteria for selecting the optimum lags in
Johansen's cointegration technique. Applied Economics, 35(8), pp. 875-880.
Barrett, C.B.; Christiaensen, L.; Sheahan, M. & Shimeles, A. (2017). On the structural transformation
of rural Africa. Journal of African Economies, pp. 1-25.
Bashir, F. (2015). Energy Consumption and Agriculture Sector in Middle Income Developing
Countries: A Panel Data Analysis. Pakistan Journal of Social Sciences (PJSS), 35(1).
Bildirici, M.E. (2014). Relationship between biomass energy and economic growth in transition
countries: panel ARDL approach. Gcb Bioenergy, 6(6), pp. 717-726.
Block, S.A. (1995). The recovery of agricultural productivity in sub-Saharan Africa. Food Policy,
20(5), pp. 385-405.
Bond, M.E. (1983). Agricultural responses to prices in Sub-Saharan African countries. IMF Staff
Papers, 30(4), pp. 703-726.
Boutabba, M.A. (2014). The impact of financial development, income, energy and trade on carbon
emissions: evidence from the Indian economy. Economic Modelling, 40, pp. 33-41.
Brownson, S.; Vincent, I.M.; Emmanuel, G. & Etim, D. (2012). Agricultural productivity and macroeconomic
variable fluctuation in Nigeria. International Journal of Economics and Finance, 4(8), p.
114.
Chisasa, J. & Makina, D. (2015). Bank credit and agricultural output in South Africa: Cointegration,
Short run Dynamics and Causality. Journal of Applied Business Research, 31(2), pp. 489-500.
Christiaensen, L.; Demery, L. & Kuhl, J. (2011). The (evolving) role of agriculture in poverty reduction
- An empirical perspective. Journal of Development Economics, 96(2), pp. 239-254.
Chudik, A. & Pesaran, M. H. (2013). Large Panel Data Models with Cross-Sectional Dependence: A
Survey. Center for Applied Financial Economics (CAFE) research paper no. 13.15. In B.H. Baltagi
(Ed.), forthcoming in The Oxford Handbook on Panel Data. Oxford University Press.
Collier, P. & Dercon, S. (2014). African Agriculture in 50 Years: Smallholders in a Rapidly Changing
World? World Development, 63, pp. 92-101.
Conceição, P.; Levine, S.; Lipton, M. & Warren-Rodríguez, A. (2016). Toward a food secure future:
Ensuring food security for sustainable human development in Sub-Saharan Africa. Food Policy, 60, pp.
1-9.
De Vries, G.; Timmer, M. & De Vries, K. (2015). Structural transformation in Africa: Static gains,
dynamic losses. The Journal of Development Studies, 51(6), pp. 674-688.
Diao, X.; Hazell, P. & Thurlow, J. (2010). The role of agriculture in African development. World
Development, 38(10), pp. 1375-1383.
Engle, Robert F. & Granger, W.J. (1987) Co-integration and Error Correction: Representation,
Estimation, and Testing. Econometrica: Journal of the Econometric Society, pp. 251-276.
Enu, P. & Attah-Obeng, P. (2013). Which macro factors influence agricultural production in Ghana?
Academic Research International, 4(5), pp. 333-346.
Faridi, M.Z. & Murtaza, G. (2014). Disaggregate energy consumption, agricultural output and
economic growth in Pakistan. The Pakistan Development Review 52:4 Part I, Winter 2013, pp. 493–
516.
Fuglie, K. & Rada, N. (2013). Resources, policies, and agricultural productivity in sub-Saharan Africa.
Economic Research Report, 145, USDA Economic Research Service, Washington, DC.
Feenstra, R.C.; Inklaar, R. & Timmer, M.P. (2015). The next generation of the Penn World Table. The
American Economic Review, 105(10), pp. 3150-3182.
Fulginiti, L.E.; Perrin, R.K. & Yu, B. (2004). Institutions and agricultural productivity in Sub-Saharan
Africa. Agricultural Economics, 31(2-3), pp. 169-180.
Garrity, D.P.; Akinnifesi, F.K.; Ajayi, O.C.; Weldesemayat, S.G.; Mowo, J.G.; Kalinganire, A.;
Larwanou, M. & Bayala, J. (2010). Evergreen Agriculture: a robust approach to sustainable food
security in Africa. Food security, 2(3), pp. 197-214.
Giles, D. (2013). Econometrics beat: Dave Giles' blog: ARDL models - Parts I and 2.
Hart, J.; Miljkovic, D. & Shaik, S. (2015). The impact of trade openness on technical efficiency in the
agricultural sector of the European Union. Applied Economics, 47(12), pp. 1230-1247.
Hilson, G. & McQuilken, J. (2014). Four decades of support for artisanal and small-scale mining in
sub-Saharan Africa: A critical review. The Extractive Industries and Society, 1(1), pp. 104-118.
Hussain, I.; Khan, Z.; Khan, M.I.; Khalid, S.; Kiran, A. & Hussain, T. (2017). Long Run and Short Run
Relationship among Gross Domestic Saving, Net Bilateral Foreign Aid, External Debt and Economic
Growth in Pakistan. Dynamics of Economics, 1(1), pp. 1-7.
Imahe, O.J. & Alabi, R.A. (2005). The determinants of agricultural productivity in Nigeria. Journal of
Food, Agriculture and Environment, Vol. 3, no. 2, pp. 269-274.
International Monetary Fund. (2017). World Economic Outlook. Africa, Sub-Saharan. Restarting the
Growth Engine. Washington, DC. Jan.
Jayne, T.S. & Rashid, S. (2013). Input subsidy programs in sub-Saharan Africa: a synthesis of recent
evidence. Agricultural Economics, 44(6), pp. 547-562.
Jedwab, R. & Vollrath, D. (2015). Urbanization without growth in historical perspective. Explorations
in Economic History, 58, pp. 1-21.
Kahsay, G.A. & Hansen, L.G. (2016). The effect of climate change and adaptation policy on agricultural
production in Eastern Africa. Ecological Economics, 121, pp. 54-64.
Kamlongera, P.J. & Hilson, G. (2011). Poverty alleviation in rural Malawi: is there a role for artisanal
mining? Journal of Eastern African Studies, 5(1), pp. 42-69.
Kutu, A.A. & Ngalawa, H. (2016). Dynamics of Industrial Production in Brics Countries. International
Journal of Economics and Finance Studies, Vol 8, No 1, pp. 1-25.
Lewis, W.A. (1954). Economic development with unlimited supplies of labour. The Manchester
School, 22(2), pp. 139-191.
Lusigi, A. & Thirtle, C. (1997). Total factor productivity and the effects of R&D in African agriculture.
Journal of International Development, 9(4), pp. 529-538.
Lutkepohl, H. (2006). Structural Vector Autoregressive Analysis for Cointegrated Variables. Adv
Econometric Analysis, 90 (2006), pp. 75-88.
Mosley, P. & Smith, L. (1989). Structural adjustment and agricultural performance in Sub-Saharan
Africa 1980–87. Journal of International Development, 1(3), pp. 321-355.
Muraya, B.W. & Ruigu, G. (2017). Determinants of Agricultural Productivity in Kenya, International
Journal of Economics, Commerce and Management, Vol. V, Issue 4, April 2017.
Nin Pratt, A. & Yu, B. (2008). An updated look at the recovery of agricultural productivity in Sub-
Saharan Africa. International Food Policy Research Institute Discussion Paper, p. 787.
Owuor, J. (1999). Determinants of Agricultural productivity in Kenya, Paper presented at the
Conference on Strategies for Raising Productivity in Agriculture, Egerton University/Tegemeo Institute
of Agricultural Policy and Development, Nairobi Kenya.
Pesaran, M.H. & Shin, Y. (1998). An Auto-Regressive Distributed Lag modelling approach to
cointegration analysis. Econometric Society Monographs, 31, pp. 371-413.
Pesaran, M.H.; Shin, Y. & Smith, R.J. (2001). Bounds testing approaches to the analysis of level
relationships. Journal of Applied Econometrics, 16(3), pp. 289-326.
Pesaran, H.M. (2007). A simple panel unit root test in the presence of cross-section dependence. Journal
of Applied Econometrics, 22, no. 2, pp. 265-312.
Rafindadi, A. & Zarinah, Y. (2013). An Application of Panel ARDL in Analysing the Dynamics of
Financial Development and Economic Growth in 38 Sub-Saharan African Continents. In Proceedings
- Kuala Lumpur International Business, Economics and Law Conference.
Sebri, M. & Ben-Salha, O. (2014). On the causal dynamics between economic growth, renewable
energy consumption, CO 2 emissions and trade openness: fresh evidence from BRICS countries.
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 39, pp. 14-23.
Sheng, Y.; Jackson, T.; Zhao, S. & Zhang, D. (2017). Measuring Output, Input and Total Factor
Productivity in Australian Agriculture: An Industry-Level Analysis. Review of Income and Wealth,
63(s1).
Smith, L.D. (1989). Structural adjustment, price reform and agricultural performance in sub-Saharan
Africa. Journal of Agricultural Economics, 40(1), pp. 21-31.
Ssozi, J.; Asongu, S.A. & Amavilah, V.H.S. (2017). Is Aid for Agriculture Effective in Sub-Saharan
Africa? African Governance and Development Institute WP/17/035. Available at SSRN:
https://ssrn.com/abstract=3034132.
Wagle, T.P.S. (2017). Spatial Analysis of Cobb-Douglas Production Function in Agriculture Sector of
Nepal: An Empirical Analysis. Journal of Advanced Academic Research, 3(2), pp. 101-114.
World Bank (2007). World Development Report 2008: Agriculture for Development. Washington, DC.
World Bank. https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/handle/10986/5990.
Yu, B. & Nin-Pratt, A. (2011). Agricultural Productivity and Policies in Sub-Saharan Africa. IFPRI
Discussion Paper, 01150. Washington, DC: International Food Policy Research Institute.
Yuan, Z. (2011). Analysis of agricultural input-output based on Cobb-Douglas production function in
Hebei Province, North China. African Journal of Microbiology Research, 5(32), pp. 5916-5922.
1980-2003. In Proceedings of International Conference on Applied Economics, ICOAE, pp. 3-10.
Ajao, A.O. (2011). Empirical analysis of agricultural productivity growth in Sub-Saharan Africa: 1961–
2003. Libyan Agricultural Resource Center Journal International, 2(5), pp. 224-231.
Akpan, S.B.; Udoh, E.J. & Patrick, I.V. (2015). Assessment of economic policy variables that modeled
agricultural intensification in Nigeria. Russian Journal of Agricultural and Socio-Economic Sciences,
41(5).
Ahmad, N. & Du, L. (2017). Effects of energy production and CO2 emissions on economic growth in
Iran: ARDL approach. Energy Volume, 123, 15 March 2017, pp. 521-537.
Akande, O.R.; Obekpa, H.O. & Fani D.R. (2017). Improving Agricultural Productivity Growth in Sub-
Saharan Africa. In: Heshmati A. (eds) Studies on Economic Development and Growth in Selected
African Countries. Frontiers in African Business Research. Springer, Singapore.
Alene, A.D. (2010). Productivity growth and the effects of R&D in African agriculture. Agricultural
Economics, 41(3-4), pp. 223-238.
Almasifard, M. & Khorasani, S.T. (2017). Relationship between Domestic Production in Agricultural
and Industrial Sectors and Purchasing Power by Controlling for International Trade Variables (Iran).
International Journal of Economics and Financial Issues, 7(4), pp. 244-253.
Alvarez-Cuadrado, F.; Van Long, N. & Poschke, M. (2017). Capital–labor substitution, structural
change, and growth. Theoretical Economics, 12(3), pp. 1229-1266.
Asumadu-Sarkodie, S. & Owusu, P.A. (2016). The relationship between carbon dioxide and agriculture
in Ghana: A comparison of VECM and ARDL model. Environmental Science and Pollution Research,
23(11), pp. 10968-10982.
Awan, A.G. & Yaseen, G. (2017). Global Climate Change and its Impact on Agriculture Sector in
Pakistan. American Journal of Trade and Policy, 4(1), pp. 41-48.
Bahmani-Oskooee, M. & Brooks, T.J. (2003). A new criteria for selecting the optimum lags in
Johansen's cointegration technique. Applied Economics, 35(8), pp. 875-880.
Barrett, C.B.; Christiaensen, L.; Sheahan, M. & Shimeles, A. (2017). On the structural transformation
of rural Africa. Journal of African Economies, pp. 1-25.
Bashir, F. (2015). Energy Consumption and Agriculture Sector in Middle Income Developing
Countries: A Panel Data Analysis. Pakistan Journal of Social Sciences (PJSS), 35(1).
Bildirici, M.E. (2014). Relationship between biomass energy and economic growth in transition
countries: panel ARDL approach. Gcb Bioenergy, 6(6), pp. 717-726.
Block, S.A. (1995). The recovery of agricultural productivity in sub-Saharan Africa. Food Policy,
20(5), pp. 385-405.
Bond, M.E. (1983). Agricultural responses to prices in Sub-Saharan African countries. IMF Staff
Papers, 30(4), pp. 703-726.
Boutabba, M.A. (2014). The impact of financial development, income, energy and trade on carbon
emissions: evidence from the Indian economy. Economic Modelling, 40, pp. 33-41.
Brownson, S.; Vincent, I.M.; Emmanuel, G. & Etim, D. (2012). Agricultural productivity and macroeconomic
variable fluctuation in Nigeria. International Journal of Economics and Finance, 4(8), p.
114.
Chisasa, J. & Makina, D. (2015). Bank credit and agricultural output in South Africa: Cointegration,
Short run Dynamics and Causality. Journal of Applied Business Research, 31(2), pp. 489-500.
Christiaensen, L.; Demery, L. & Kuhl, J. (2011). The (evolving) role of agriculture in poverty reduction
- An empirical perspective. Journal of Development Economics, 96(2), pp. 239-254.
Chudik, A. & Pesaran, M. H. (2013). Large Panel Data Models with Cross-Sectional Dependence: A
Survey. Center for Applied Financial Economics (CAFE) research paper no. 13.15. In B.H. Baltagi
(Ed.), forthcoming in The Oxford Handbook on Panel Data. Oxford University Press.
Collier, P. & Dercon, S. (2014). African Agriculture in 50 Years: Smallholders in a Rapidly Changing
World? World Development, 63, pp. 92-101.
Conceição, P.; Levine, S.; Lipton, M. & Warren-Rodríguez, A. (2016). Toward a food secure future:
Ensuring food security for sustainable human development in Sub-Saharan Africa. Food Policy, 60, pp.
1-9.
De Vries, G.; Timmer, M. & De Vries, K. (2015). Structural transformation in Africa: Static gains,
dynamic losses. The Journal of Development Studies, 51(6), pp. 674-688.
Diao, X.; Hazell, P. & Thurlow, J. (2010). The role of agriculture in African development. World
Development, 38(10), pp. 1375-1383.
Engle, Robert F. & Granger, W.J. (1987) Co-integration and Error Correction: Representation,
Estimation, and Testing. Econometrica: Journal of the Econometric Society, pp. 251-276.
Enu, P. & Attah-Obeng, P. (2013). Which macro factors influence agricultural production in Ghana?
Academic Research International, 4(5), pp. 333-346.
Faridi, M.Z. & Murtaza, G. (2014). Disaggregate energy consumption, agricultural output and
economic growth in Pakistan. The Pakistan Development Review 52:4 Part I, Winter 2013, pp. 493–
516.
Fuglie, K. & Rada, N. (2013). Resources, policies, and agricultural productivity in sub-Saharan Africa.
Economic Research Report, 145, USDA Economic Research Service, Washington, DC.
Feenstra, R.C.; Inklaar, R. & Timmer, M.P. (2015). The next generation of the Penn World Table. The
American Economic Review, 105(10), pp. 3150-3182.
Fulginiti, L.E.; Perrin, R.K. & Yu, B. (2004). Institutions and agricultural productivity in Sub-Saharan
Africa. Agricultural Economics, 31(2-3), pp. 169-180.
Garrity, D.P.; Akinnifesi, F.K.; Ajayi, O.C.; Weldesemayat, S.G.; Mowo, J.G.; Kalinganire, A.;
Larwanou, M. & Bayala, J. (2010). Evergreen Agriculture: a robust approach to sustainable food
security in Africa. Food security, 2(3), pp. 197-214.
Giles, D. (2013). Econometrics beat: Dave Giles' blog: ARDL models - Parts I and 2.
Hart, J.; Miljkovic, D. & Shaik, S. (2015). The impact of trade openness on technical efficiency in the
agricultural sector of the European Union. Applied Economics, 47(12), pp. 1230-1247.
Hilson, G. & McQuilken, J. (2014). Four decades of support for artisanal and small-scale mining in
sub-Saharan Africa: A critical review. The Extractive Industries and Society, 1(1), pp. 104-118.
Hussain, I.; Khan, Z.; Khan, M.I.; Khalid, S.; Kiran, A. & Hussain, T. (2017). Long Run and Short Run
Relationship among Gross Domestic Saving, Net Bilateral Foreign Aid, External Debt and Economic
Growth in Pakistan. Dynamics of Economics, 1(1), pp. 1-7.
Imahe, O.J. & Alabi, R.A. (2005). The determinants of agricultural productivity in Nigeria. Journal of
Food, Agriculture and Environment, Vol. 3, no. 2, pp. 269-274.
International Monetary Fund. (2017). World Economic Outlook. Africa, Sub-Saharan. Restarting the
Growth Engine. Washington, DC. Jan.
Jayne, T.S. & Rashid, S. (2013). Input subsidy programs in sub-Saharan Africa: a synthesis of recent
evidence. Agricultural Economics, 44(6), pp. 547-562.
Jedwab, R. & Vollrath, D. (2015). Urbanization without growth in historical perspective. Explorations
in Economic History, 58, pp. 1-21.
Kahsay, G.A. & Hansen, L.G. (2016). The effect of climate change and adaptation policy on agricultural
production in Eastern Africa. Ecological Economics, 121, pp. 54-64.
Kamlongera, P.J. & Hilson, G. (2011). Poverty alleviation in rural Malawi: is there a role for artisanal
mining? Journal of Eastern African Studies, 5(1), pp. 42-69.
Kutu, A.A. & Ngalawa, H. (2016). Dynamics of Industrial Production in Brics Countries. International
Journal of Economics and Finance Studies, Vol 8, No 1, pp. 1-25.
Lewis, W.A. (1954). Economic development with unlimited supplies of labour. The Manchester
School, 22(2), pp. 139-191.
Lusigi, A. & Thirtle, C. (1997). Total factor productivity and the effects of R&D in African agriculture.
Journal of International Development, 9(4), pp. 529-538.
Lutkepohl, H. (2006). Structural Vector Autoregressive Analysis for Cointegrated Variables. Adv
Econometric Analysis, 90 (2006), pp. 75-88.
Mosley, P. & Smith, L. (1989). Structural adjustment and agricultural performance in Sub-Saharan
Africa 1980–87. Journal of International Development, 1(3), pp. 321-355.
Muraya, B.W. & Ruigu, G. (2017). Determinants of Agricultural Productivity in Kenya, International
Journal of Economics, Commerce and Management, Vol. V, Issue 4, April 2017.
Nin Pratt, A. & Yu, B. (2008). An updated look at the recovery of agricultural productivity in Sub-
Saharan Africa. International Food Policy Research Institute Discussion Paper, p. 787.
Owuor, J. (1999). Determinants of Agricultural productivity in Kenya, Paper presented at the
Conference on Strategies for Raising Productivity in Agriculture, Egerton University/Tegemeo Institute
of Agricultural Policy and Development, Nairobi Kenya.
Pesaran, M.H. & Shin, Y. (1998). An Auto-Regressive Distributed Lag modelling approach to
cointegration analysis. Econometric Society Monographs, 31, pp. 371-413.
Pesaran, M.H.; Shin, Y. & Smith, R.J. (2001). Bounds testing approaches to the analysis of level
relationships. Journal of Applied Econometrics, 16(3), pp. 289-326.
Pesaran, H.M. (2007). A simple panel unit root test in the presence of cross-section dependence. Journal
of Applied Econometrics, 22, no. 2, pp. 265-312.
Rafindadi, A. & Zarinah, Y. (2013). An Application of Panel ARDL in Analysing the Dynamics of
Financial Development and Economic Growth in 38 Sub-Saharan African Continents. In Proceedings
- Kuala Lumpur International Business, Economics and Law Conference.
Sebri, M. & Ben-Salha, O. (2014). On the causal dynamics between economic growth, renewable
energy consumption, CO 2 emissions and trade openness: fresh evidence from BRICS countries.
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 39, pp. 14-23.
Sheng, Y.; Jackson, T.; Zhao, S. & Zhang, D. (2017). Measuring Output, Input and Total Factor
Productivity in Australian Agriculture: An Industry-Level Analysis. Review of Income and Wealth,
63(s1).
Smith, L.D. (1989). Structural adjustment, price reform and agricultural performance in sub-Saharan
Africa. Journal of Agricultural Economics, 40(1), pp. 21-31.
Ssozi, J.; Asongu, S.A. & Amavilah, V.H.S. (2017). Is Aid for Agriculture Effective in Sub-Saharan
Africa? African Governance and Development Institute WP/17/035. Available at SSRN:
https://ssrn.com/abstract=3034132.
Wagle, T.P.S. (2017). Spatial Analysis of Cobb-Douglas Production Function in Agriculture Sector of
Nepal: An Empirical Analysis. Journal of Advanced Academic Research, 3(2), pp. 101-114.
World Bank (2007). World Development Report 2008: Agriculture for Development. Washington, DC.
World Bank. https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/handle/10986/5990.
Yu, B. & Nin-Pratt, A. (2011). Agricultural Productivity and Policies in Sub-Saharan Africa. IFPRI
Discussion Paper, 01150. Washington, DC: International Food Policy Research Institute.
Yuan, Z. (2011). Analysis of agricultural input-output based on Cobb-Douglas production function in
Hebei Province, North China. African Journal of Microbiology Research, 5(32), pp. 5916-5922.
Published
2021-06-18
How to Cite
Collective Authors. (2021). Macroeconomics and Monetary Economics: Array. Acta Universitatis Danubius. Œconomica, 14(3). Retrieved from https://dj.univ-danubius.ro/index.php/AUDOE/article/view/1165
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