Combating Legal Uncertainty in the Nigerian Tax Avoidance Laws
Keywords:
Tax avoidance; tax incentives; uncertainty; artificial transactionsAbstract
Nigeria utilises its oil earnings to finance over fifty percent of its budget. Therefore, the fall in oil price has negatively impacted the revenue earnings of the federal Nigerian government since the 1980s. This has led to strict enforcement of the relevant tax laws on all persons (including juristic persons), leading to rampant tax avoidance challenges in Nigeria. This article investigates the ambiguity in the relevant laws, which enabled tax avoidance by taxpayers in Nigeria. The article employs a qualitative and doctrinal methodology. In addition, it provides that the Nigerian tax authorities’ enforcement efforts are hindered by the lack of clarity and predictability of the tax laws, which is worsened by the conflicting aspects of tax incentives and the general anti-avoidance provisions in the different taxing statutes of Nigeria. The article also provides that the ambiguity in anti-avoidance provisions and certain provisions of the tax laws gives rise to uncertainty and unpredictability in tax avoidance cases in Nigeria. Thus, the article isolates the gaps and flaws in the tax laws and recommends robust measures to combat such flaws.
References
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Allingham, M. & Sandmo, A. (1972). Income tax evasion: A theoretical analysis. Journal of Public Economics, Vol. 1, No. 3-4, pp. 323-338.
Almendral, V. R. (2013). “Allocating Taxing Powers within the European Union” in Richelle, I., Schön, W. and Traversa, E. (Eds.) MPI Studies in Tax Law and Public Finance, Vol. 2, (New York Springer). pp: 131-170.
Alstadsæter, A., Johannesen, N., and Zucman, G. (2018). “Tax evasion and tax avoidance”, http://gabriel-zucman.eu/files/AJZ2018b.pdf.
American International School of Lagos (AIS) v FIRS (2014) Unreported TAT/LZ/CIT/059/2014.
Anesa, M., Gillespie, N., Spee, A., & Sadiq, K. (2018). “The legitimation of corporate tax minimization. Accounting, Organizations and Society”. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aos. 2018.10.004.
Animashaun, O.O. (2017). A legal analysis of the extent and limit of the Nigerian state powers of taxation [Doctoral dissertation, University of Ilorin].
Arezki, R., Rota-Graciozi, G. & Senbet, L.W. (2017), Natural resources and tax avoidance, in OH Fjeldstad, S. K Jacobsen, P.H Ringstad, H.P. Ngowi, Å. J. R. Dahl and I. Hestad (Eds.), Lifting the Veil of Secrecy Perspectives on International Taxation and Capital Flight from Africa (pp. 104 -107) Michelsen Institute.
Barker, W. B. (2009). “The ideology of tax avoidance”, Loyola University Chicago Law Journal, Vol. 40, No. 2, pp: 229-233.
Barkoczy, S. (2017). Foundations of Taxation Law (9th ed.), (Oxford, OUP).
Barriosa, S., Ivaškaitė-Tamošiūnėa, V., Mafteia, A., Narazania, E. and Vargab, J. (2020). “Progressive tax reforms in flat tax countries”, Eastern European Economics, Vol. 58, No. 2, pp: 83-107.
Best Children International Schools Limited (BCIS) v FIRS (2016) Unreported CA/A/393/2016.
Blaufus, K., Braune, M., Hundsdoerfer, J. & Jacob, M. (2015), “Does legality matter? The case of tax avoidance and evasion”, arqus Discussion Paper, No. 193, Arbeitskreis Quantitative Steuerlehre (arqus), Berlin. https://www.econstor.eu/bitstream/10419/121168/1/83 7148987.pdf.
Brooks, K. (2009). “Tax sparing: A needed incentive for foreign investment in low-income countries or an unnecessary revenue sacrifice”, Queen’s Law Journal, Vol. 34, No. 2, pp: 1-38.
Christians, A. (2014). “Avoidance, evasion, and taxpayer morality”, Washington University Law Journal of Law and Policy, Vol. 44, pp: 39-60.
Christians, A. (2017). “Distinguishing tax avoidance and evasion: Why and how?”, Journal of Tax Administration, Vol. 3, No. 2, pp. 5-21.
Croome, B., and Croome, J. (2017). Street Smart Taxpayers: A Practical Guide to Your Rights in South Africa. (Claremont, Juta,).
Dare, C., Du Plessis, S. and Jansen, A. (2019). “Tax revenue mobilisation: Estimates of South Africa’s personal income tax gap”, South African Journal of Economic and Management Sciences Vol. 22 No.1 pp: 1-8.
Esso Exploration and Production Nig. Ltd & Anor v NNPC (2016). Unreported CA/A/507/2012.
Esso Petroleum and Production Nigeria Limited & Shell Nigeria Exploration and Production Company Limited v FIRS & NNPC (2017). Unreported CA/A/402/2012.
EU Report (2017). Aggressive tax planning indicators: Final report TAXUD/2016/DE/319, https://ec.europa.eu/taxation_customs/sites/taxation/files/taxation_papers_71_atp_.pdf.
Eurodad, (2017). Tax Games: The Race to the Bottom Europe's role in supporting an unjust global tax system, https://eurodad.org/files/pdf/1546849-tax-games-the-race-to-the-bottom.pdf.
Evans, C. (2007). “Barriers to avoidance: Recent legislative and judicial developments in common law jurisdictions”, Hong Kong L.J., Vol. 37, No. 1, pp: 103- 132.
Faccio, T. and Fitzgerald, V. (2018). “Sharing the corporate tax base: Equitable taxing of multinationals and the choice of formulary apportionment”, Transnational Corporations, Vol. 25, No. 2, pp: 67– 89.
Faulhaber, L.V. (2009-2010). “Sovereignty, integration, and tax avoidance in the European Union: Striking the proper balance”, Columbia Journal of Transnational Law, Vol.4, pp: 177-242.
Federal Ministry of Finance of Nigeria. (2017). Nigerian Tax Policy 2017. https://pwcnigeria.typepad.com/ files/fec-approved-ntp---feb-1-2017.pdf.
Filipczyk, H. (2015). “Why is tax avoidance (im)moral? Ethics, metaethics and taxes” Toruński Rocznik Podatkowy, pp: 28-48. http://www.trp.umk.pl/images/pdfs/3.2015.pdf.
Finance Act, 2019, Gazette of the Federal Republic of Nigeria, No. 6. Vol. 107.
Forbes (2017, June 14), “Is It Time to Tax Nigeria’s Churches?” https://www.forbesafrica.com/focus/2017/06/14/time-tax-nigerias-churches/.
Freedman, J. (2004). “Defining taxpayer responsibility: In support of a General Anti-Avoidance Principle”, BTR Vol. No. 4 pp: 332-357.
Freedman, J. (2006). “The tax avoidance culture: who is responsible? Governmental influences and corporate social responsibility”, Current Legal Problems, Vol. 59 No. 1 pp: 359- 390.
Freedman, J., Loomer, G. & Vella, J. (2009). “Corporate tax risk and tax avoidance: New approaches”, BTR, Vol. 1, pp. 74-116. http://www.sweetandmaxwell.co.uk/Catalogue/ ProductDetails.aspx?recordid=338&p roductid=6614.
Gadžo, S. and Klemenčić, I. (2014). “Time to stop avoiding the tax avoidance issue in Croatia? A proposal based on recent developments in the European Union”, Financial Theory and Practice, Vol. 38, No. 3, pp: 277-302.
Gribnau, H. (2013). “Equality, legal certainty and tax legislation in the Netherlands fundamental legal principles as checks on legislative power: A case study”, Utrecht Law Review, Vol. 9,. No. 2 pp: 52-74.
IMF. (2015). “Options for low income countries’ effective and efficient use of tax incentives for investment: A report to the G-20 development working group by the IMF, OEC04-D, UN and World Bank”, https://www.imf.org/external/np/g20/pdf/101515.pdf.
Income Tax Act 58 of 1962, (South Africa) as amended.
InvestorWords (2020), Thin capitalization. http://www.investorwords.com/14888/thin _capitalization.html#ixzz6LxDoNoih.
Kades, E. A. (2002). “Drawing the line between taxes and takings: The continuous burdens principle, and its broader application”, Northwestern University Law Review, Vol.97 No.1, pp. 189-265.
Karlsson, J. and Matthiasson, T. (2015), “Tax evasion, tax avoidance and the influence of special interest groups: Taxation in Iceland from 1930 to the present”, Nordic Tax Journal, Vol.2, pp. 1–17.
Kirchlera, E, Maciejovskyb, B. and Schneiderc, F. (2003). “Everyday representations of tax avoidance, tax evasion, and tax flight: Do legal differences matter?” Journal of Economic Psychology Vol. 24 pp: 535–553.
Lederman, L. (2010). W(h)ither economic substance? Iowa Law Review, Vol. 95 pp: 389-442.
Lee B. B., Dobiyanski, A. and Minton, S. “Theories and empirical proxies for corporate tax avoidance” Journal of Applied Business and Economics Vol. 17 No. 3, pp. 21-34.
Lenz, H. (2008). “Aggressive tax avoidance by managers of multinational companies as a violation of their moral duty to obey the law: A Kantian rationale” Journal of Business Ethics. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-018-4087-8.
Loutinsky, G. (2012). “Gladwellian taxation: Deterring tax abuse through general anti-avoidance rules.” Houston Business and Tax Law Journal Vol. XII pp. 83-120.
MacNiven v Westmoreland (2001) STC 237.
Mclaren, J. (2008), “The distinction between tax avoidance and tax evasion has become blurred in Australia: Why has it happened?” Journal of the Australasian Tax Teachers Association, Vol.3 No.2 pp: 141-163.
Neck R., Wächter, J.U., and Schneider, F. (2012), “Tax avoidance versus tax evasion: on some determinants of the shadow economy”, International Tax and Public Finance, Vol. 19 No.1 pp: 104-117.
Nigerian Export Processing Zones Authority Act, Chapter N 107 LFN of 2004.
Nigerian Liquefied Natural Gas (Fiscal Incentives, Guarantees and Assurances) Act, Chapter N8, LFN 2004.
Oando Plc v FBIR (2014) 16 TLRN 99.
Oats L., and Tuck, P. (2019), “Corporate tax avoidance: is tax transparency the solution?” Accounting and Business Research, Vol.49 No.5 pp: 565-583.
Obadina, D.A. (2015), “Tackling aggressive tax avoidance in Nigeria: An agenda for reform”, Ife Juris Review, Vol. 4 No. 1 pp: 38 – 57.
OECD (2019), Revenue Statistics in Africa 2019─Nigeria. https://www.oecd.org/tax/tax- policy/revenue-statistics-africa-nigeria.pdf.
OECD (2020), Glossary of Tax Terms https://www.oecd.org/ctp/glossaryoftaxterms.htm#T
Oil and Gas Export Free Zone Act, Chapter 07 LFN of 2004.
Olanrewaju, O.M. and Olayiwola, J.A. (2019), “Corporate tax planning and financial performance in Nigerian non‐financial quoted companies”, African Development Review, Vol. 31 No. 2 pp: 202–215.
Olokun Pisces Limited v FIRS (2014) Unreported TAT/LZ/CIT/076/2014
Onu, D., Oats, L., Kirchler, E. and Hartmann, A.J. (2019), “Gaming the system: An investigation of small business owners’ attitudes to tax avoidance, tax planning, and tax evasion”, Games Vol.10 No. 4 pp: 1-17.
Ordower, H. (2010), “The culture of tax avoidance”, Saint Louis University Law Journal, Vol. xx pp:1-68.
Otusanya, O.J. (2010), “The role of multinational companies in tax evasion and tax avoidance: The case of Nigeria”, Critical Perspectives on Accounting, Vol. 22 pp: 316-322.
Pasternak, M. & Rico C. (2008), “Tax interpretation, planning, and avoidance: Some linguistic analysis”, Akron Tax Journal, Vol. 23, No. 2, pp: 34-78.
Payne, D.M. and Raiborn, C.A. (2018). “Aggressive tax avoidance: A conundrum for stakeholders, governments, and morality” J Bus Ethics ,Vol. 147 pp: 469–487.
Personal Income Tax Act Chapter P 8, LFN, 2004.
Petroleum Profits Tax Act Chapter P 13, LFN, 2004.
Prijohandojo, K. (03 Feb 2016), New Thin Capitalization rules. Taxand. https://www.taxand. com/our-thinking/ news/new-thin-capitalisation-rules/
Sandmo, A. (2005). “The Theory of Tax Evasion: A Retrospective View”. National Tax Journal, 58(4), pp. 643-663.
Saipem Contracting Nigeria Limited v FIRS (2014) 15 TLRN 76.
Schlenther, B. (2017), “The impact of corruption on tax revenues, tax compliance and economic development: Prevailing trends and mitigation actions in Africa”, e Journal of Tax Research Vol. 15, No. 2, pp: 217-242.
Shell International v FBIR (2004) 3NWLR (Pt 859) 46.
Shell Nigeria Exploration and Production & others v FIRS & Anor (2016) Unreported CA/A/208/2012.
Shell Petroleum Development Company Limited v FBIR (1996) NWLR 256.
Slemrod, J. & Yitzhaki, S. (2002), “Tax avoidance, evasion, and administration”, in Auerbach, A.J and M. Feldstein, M. (Eds.), Handbook of Public Economics, Vol.3, (Elsevier, New York), pp: 1425-1472.
Storm, A. and Coetzee, K. (2018), “Towards improving South Africa’s legislation on tax evasion: A comparison of legislation on tax evasion of the USA, UK, Australia and South Africa”, The Journal of Applied Business Research, Vol.34 No.1 pp: 151-168.
The JGC Corporation v FIRS (2014) 15 TLRN 105.
Ulrich, S. (2013), International Company Taxation: An Introduction to the Legal and Economic Principles, Springer Berlin-Heidelberg.
United Capital Assets Management Limited v FIRS (2018), Unreported TAT/LZ/CIT/006/2018
US Department of Treasury, Resource Centre: Tax Expenditures (2018), https://www.treasury.gov /resource-center/tax-policy/Pages/Tax-Expenditures.aspx.
van Dorp, M. (2016), How Shell, Total and Eni benefit from tax breaks in Nigeria’s gas industry: The case of Nigeria Liquefied Natural Gas Company (Amsterdam, Centre for Research on Multinational Corporations).
W.T. Ramsay Limited v Inland Revenue Commissioners (1982) A.C. 300.
Walker, R. (2004), “Ramsay 25 years On: Some reflections on tax avoidance” LQR 120, pp: 412-427.
World Bank. (2019), “The changing nature of work,” http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/ en/816281518818814423/pdf/2019-WDR-Report.pdf.
Allingham, M. & Sandmo, A. (1972). Income tax evasion: A theoretical analysis. Journal of Public Economics, Vol. 1, No. 3-4, pp. 323-338.
Almendral, V. R. (2013). “Allocating Taxing Powers within the European Union” in Richelle, I., Schön, W. and Traversa, E. (Eds.) MPI Studies in Tax Law and Public Finance, Vol. 2, (New York Springer). pp: 131-170.
Alstadsæter, A., Johannesen, N., and Zucman, G. (2018). “Tax evasion and tax avoidance”, http://gabriel-zucman.eu/files/AJZ2018b.pdf.
American International School of Lagos (AIS) v FIRS (2014) Unreported TAT/LZ/CIT/059/2014.
Anesa, M., Gillespie, N., Spee, A., & Sadiq, K. (2018). “The legitimation of corporate tax minimization. Accounting, Organizations and Society”. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aos. 2018.10.004.
Animashaun, O.O. (2017). A legal analysis of the extent and limit of the Nigerian state powers of taxation [Doctoral dissertation, University of Ilorin].
Arezki, R., Rota-Graciozi, G. & Senbet, L.W. (2017), Natural resources and tax avoidance, in OH Fjeldstad, S. K Jacobsen, P.H Ringstad, H.P. Ngowi, Å. J. R. Dahl and I. Hestad (Eds.), Lifting the Veil of Secrecy Perspectives on International Taxation and Capital Flight from Africa (pp. 104 -107) Michelsen Institute.
Barker, W. B. (2009). “The ideology of tax avoidance”, Loyola University Chicago Law Journal, Vol. 40, No. 2, pp: 229-233.
Barkoczy, S. (2017). Foundations of Taxation Law (9th ed.), (Oxford, OUP).
Barriosa, S., Ivaškaitė-Tamošiūnėa, V., Mafteia, A., Narazania, E. and Vargab, J. (2020). “Progressive tax reforms in flat tax countries”, Eastern European Economics, Vol. 58, No. 2, pp: 83-107.
Best Children International Schools Limited (BCIS) v FIRS (2016) Unreported CA/A/393/2016.
Blaufus, K., Braune, M., Hundsdoerfer, J. & Jacob, M. (2015), “Does legality matter? The case of tax avoidance and evasion”, arqus Discussion Paper, No. 193, Arbeitskreis Quantitative Steuerlehre (arqus), Berlin. https://www.econstor.eu/bitstream/10419/121168/1/83 7148987.pdf.
Brooks, K. (2009). “Tax sparing: A needed incentive for foreign investment in low-income countries or an unnecessary revenue sacrifice”, Queen’s Law Journal, Vol. 34, No. 2, pp: 1-38.
Christians, A. (2014). “Avoidance, evasion, and taxpayer morality”, Washington University Law Journal of Law and Policy, Vol. 44, pp: 39-60.
Christians, A. (2017). “Distinguishing tax avoidance and evasion: Why and how?”, Journal of Tax Administration, Vol. 3, No. 2, pp. 5-21.
Croome, B., and Croome, J. (2017). Street Smart Taxpayers: A Practical Guide to Your Rights in South Africa. (Claremont, Juta,).
Dare, C., Du Plessis, S. and Jansen, A. (2019). “Tax revenue mobilisation: Estimates of South Africa’s personal income tax gap”, South African Journal of Economic and Management Sciences Vol. 22 No.1 pp: 1-8.
Esso Exploration and Production Nig. Ltd & Anor v NNPC (2016). Unreported CA/A/507/2012.
Esso Petroleum and Production Nigeria Limited & Shell Nigeria Exploration and Production Company Limited v FIRS & NNPC (2017). Unreported CA/A/402/2012.
EU Report (2017). Aggressive tax planning indicators: Final report TAXUD/2016/DE/319, https://ec.europa.eu/taxation_customs/sites/taxation/files/taxation_papers_71_atp_.pdf.
Eurodad, (2017). Tax Games: The Race to the Bottom Europe's role in supporting an unjust global tax system, https://eurodad.org/files/pdf/1546849-tax-games-the-race-to-the-bottom.pdf.
Evans, C. (2007). “Barriers to avoidance: Recent legislative and judicial developments in common law jurisdictions”, Hong Kong L.J., Vol. 37, No. 1, pp: 103- 132.
Faccio, T. and Fitzgerald, V. (2018). “Sharing the corporate tax base: Equitable taxing of multinationals and the choice of formulary apportionment”, Transnational Corporations, Vol. 25, No. 2, pp: 67– 89.
Faulhaber, L.V. (2009-2010). “Sovereignty, integration, and tax avoidance in the European Union: Striking the proper balance”, Columbia Journal of Transnational Law, Vol.4, pp: 177-242.
Federal Ministry of Finance of Nigeria. (2017). Nigerian Tax Policy 2017. https://pwcnigeria.typepad.com/ files/fec-approved-ntp---feb-1-2017.pdf.
Filipczyk, H. (2015). “Why is tax avoidance (im)moral? Ethics, metaethics and taxes” Toruński Rocznik Podatkowy, pp: 28-48. http://www.trp.umk.pl/images/pdfs/3.2015.pdf.
Finance Act, 2019, Gazette of the Federal Republic of Nigeria, No. 6. Vol. 107.
Forbes (2017, June 14), “Is It Time to Tax Nigeria’s Churches?” https://www.forbesafrica.com/focus/2017/06/14/time-tax-nigerias-churches/.
Freedman, J. (2004). “Defining taxpayer responsibility: In support of a General Anti-Avoidance Principle”, BTR Vol. No. 4 pp: 332-357.
Freedman, J. (2006). “The tax avoidance culture: who is responsible? Governmental influences and corporate social responsibility”, Current Legal Problems, Vol. 59 No. 1 pp: 359- 390.
Freedman, J., Loomer, G. & Vella, J. (2009). “Corporate tax risk and tax avoidance: New approaches”, BTR, Vol. 1, pp. 74-116. http://www.sweetandmaxwell.co.uk/Catalogue/ ProductDetails.aspx?recordid=338&p roductid=6614.
Gadžo, S. and Klemenčić, I. (2014). “Time to stop avoiding the tax avoidance issue in Croatia? A proposal based on recent developments in the European Union”, Financial Theory and Practice, Vol. 38, No. 3, pp: 277-302.
Gribnau, H. (2013). “Equality, legal certainty and tax legislation in the Netherlands fundamental legal principles as checks on legislative power: A case study”, Utrecht Law Review, Vol. 9,. No. 2 pp: 52-74.
IMF. (2015). “Options for low income countries’ effective and efficient use of tax incentives for investment: A report to the G-20 development working group by the IMF, OEC04-D, UN and World Bank”, https://www.imf.org/external/np/g20/pdf/101515.pdf.
Income Tax Act 58 of 1962, (South Africa) as amended.
InvestorWords (2020), Thin capitalization. http://www.investorwords.com/14888/thin _capitalization.html#ixzz6LxDoNoih.
Kades, E. A. (2002). “Drawing the line between taxes and takings: The continuous burdens principle, and its broader application”, Northwestern University Law Review, Vol.97 No.1, pp. 189-265.
Karlsson, J. and Matthiasson, T. (2015), “Tax evasion, tax avoidance and the influence of special interest groups: Taxation in Iceland from 1930 to the present”, Nordic Tax Journal, Vol.2, pp. 1–17.
Kirchlera, E, Maciejovskyb, B. and Schneiderc, F. (2003). “Everyday representations of tax avoidance, tax evasion, and tax flight: Do legal differences matter?” Journal of Economic Psychology Vol. 24 pp: 535–553.
Lederman, L. (2010). W(h)ither economic substance? Iowa Law Review, Vol. 95 pp: 389-442.
Lee B. B., Dobiyanski, A. and Minton, S. “Theories and empirical proxies for corporate tax avoidance” Journal of Applied Business and Economics Vol. 17 No. 3, pp. 21-34.
Lenz, H. (2008). “Aggressive tax avoidance by managers of multinational companies as a violation of their moral duty to obey the law: A Kantian rationale” Journal of Business Ethics. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-018-4087-8.
Loutinsky, G. (2012). “Gladwellian taxation: Deterring tax abuse through general anti-avoidance rules.” Houston Business and Tax Law Journal Vol. XII pp. 83-120.
MacNiven v Westmoreland (2001) STC 237.
Mclaren, J. (2008), “The distinction between tax avoidance and tax evasion has become blurred in Australia: Why has it happened?” Journal of the Australasian Tax Teachers Association, Vol.3 No.2 pp: 141-163.
Neck R., Wächter, J.U., and Schneider, F. (2012), “Tax avoidance versus tax evasion: on some determinants of the shadow economy”, International Tax and Public Finance, Vol. 19 No.1 pp: 104-117.
Nigerian Export Processing Zones Authority Act, Chapter N 107 LFN of 2004.
Nigerian Liquefied Natural Gas (Fiscal Incentives, Guarantees and Assurances) Act, Chapter N8, LFN 2004.
Oando Plc v FBIR (2014) 16 TLRN 99.
Oats L., and Tuck, P. (2019), “Corporate tax avoidance: is tax transparency the solution?” Accounting and Business Research, Vol.49 No.5 pp: 565-583.
Obadina, D.A. (2015), “Tackling aggressive tax avoidance in Nigeria: An agenda for reform”, Ife Juris Review, Vol. 4 No. 1 pp: 38 – 57.
OECD (2019), Revenue Statistics in Africa 2019─Nigeria. https://www.oecd.org/tax/tax- policy/revenue-statistics-africa-nigeria.pdf.
OECD (2020), Glossary of Tax Terms https://www.oecd.org/ctp/glossaryoftaxterms.htm#T
Oil and Gas Export Free Zone Act, Chapter 07 LFN of 2004.
Olanrewaju, O.M. and Olayiwola, J.A. (2019), “Corporate tax planning and financial performance in Nigerian non‐financial quoted companies”, African Development Review, Vol. 31 No. 2 pp: 202–215.
Olokun Pisces Limited v FIRS (2014) Unreported TAT/LZ/CIT/076/2014
Onu, D., Oats, L., Kirchler, E. and Hartmann, A.J. (2019), “Gaming the system: An investigation of small business owners’ attitudes to tax avoidance, tax planning, and tax evasion”, Games Vol.10 No. 4 pp: 1-17.
Ordower, H. (2010), “The culture of tax avoidance”, Saint Louis University Law Journal, Vol. xx pp:1-68.
Otusanya, O.J. (2010), “The role of multinational companies in tax evasion and tax avoidance: The case of Nigeria”, Critical Perspectives on Accounting, Vol. 22 pp: 316-322.
Pasternak, M. & Rico C. (2008), “Tax interpretation, planning, and avoidance: Some linguistic analysis”, Akron Tax Journal, Vol. 23, No. 2, pp: 34-78.
Payne, D.M. and Raiborn, C.A. (2018). “Aggressive tax avoidance: A conundrum for stakeholders, governments, and morality” J Bus Ethics ,Vol. 147 pp: 469–487.
Personal Income Tax Act Chapter P 8, LFN, 2004.
Petroleum Profits Tax Act Chapter P 13, LFN, 2004.
Prijohandojo, K. (03 Feb 2016), New Thin Capitalization rules. Taxand. https://www.taxand. com/our-thinking/ news/new-thin-capitalisation-rules/
Sandmo, A. (2005). “The Theory of Tax Evasion: A Retrospective View”. National Tax Journal, 58(4), pp. 643-663.
Saipem Contracting Nigeria Limited v FIRS (2014) 15 TLRN 76.
Schlenther, B. (2017), “The impact of corruption on tax revenues, tax compliance and economic development: Prevailing trends and mitigation actions in Africa”, e Journal of Tax Research Vol. 15, No. 2, pp: 217-242.
Shell International v FBIR (2004) 3NWLR (Pt 859) 46.
Shell Nigeria Exploration and Production & others v FIRS & Anor (2016) Unreported CA/A/208/2012.
Shell Petroleum Development Company Limited v FBIR (1996) NWLR 256.
Slemrod, J. & Yitzhaki, S. (2002), “Tax avoidance, evasion, and administration”, in Auerbach, A.J and M. Feldstein, M. (Eds.), Handbook of Public Economics, Vol.3, (Elsevier, New York), pp: 1425-1472.
Storm, A. and Coetzee, K. (2018), “Towards improving South Africa’s legislation on tax evasion: A comparison of legislation on tax evasion of the USA, UK, Australia and South Africa”, The Journal of Applied Business Research, Vol.34 No.1 pp: 151-168.
The JGC Corporation v FIRS (2014) 15 TLRN 105.
Ulrich, S. (2013), International Company Taxation: An Introduction to the Legal and Economic Principles, Springer Berlin-Heidelberg.
United Capital Assets Management Limited v FIRS (2018), Unreported TAT/LZ/CIT/006/2018
US Department of Treasury, Resource Centre: Tax Expenditures (2018), https://www.treasury.gov /resource-center/tax-policy/Pages/Tax-Expenditures.aspx.
van Dorp, M. (2016), How Shell, Total and Eni benefit from tax breaks in Nigeria’s gas industry: The case of Nigeria Liquefied Natural Gas Company (Amsterdam, Centre for Research on Multinational Corporations).
W.T. Ramsay Limited v Inland Revenue Commissioners (1982) A.C. 300.
Walker, R. (2004), “Ramsay 25 years On: Some reflections on tax avoidance” LQR 120, pp: 412-427.
World Bank. (2019), “The changing nature of work,” http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/ en/816281518818814423/pdf/2019-WDR-Report.pdf.
Published
2021-02-22
How to Cite
Chitimira, H., & Animashaun, O. . (2021). Combating Legal Uncertainty in the Nigerian Tax Avoidance Laws: Array. Acta Universitatis Danubius. Œconomica, 17(2). Retrieved from https://dj.univ-danubius.ro/index.php/AUDOE/article/view/848
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